Mock Trial: Brown V. Board of Education

In continuation of our study on historical court cases, the class presented a mock trial of Brown v. Board of Education.  In this trial, students took the famous consolidation case and presented separate sides in front of our acting judge, Professor Smith.  In this equal protection case, a clear question was set: Is the state law mandating segregation in schools covered by the 14th amendment?

The first side to argue were those of Brown.  The question first pitched was if two separate facilities based on race could actually be equal.  Response statements included that with separation, one race would always be inferior to the other, calling out the flaws in Plessy v. Ferguson.

Other points made in favor of Brown were that having separate schools hurt the economy due to the lack of opportunities presented for blacks.  Going along with the bashing of Plessy v. Ferguson, one student stated that while separate but equal may look good on paper, it is certainly the opposite in real-life.

Of course, the valuable point of stare decisis was quickly brought up by the side arguing for the State of Kansas.  Presenters urged the judge to stand-by the decision already made in Plessy v. Ferguson.  Other arguments acknowledged that inequality was still very real, but would get better as time progressed, and shouldn’t be dealt with brashly.

State decision was also a big plea by the Kansas side.  The students felt that the matter should be a state choice, not one decided by the federal government.  The thought that a number of different social classes were mixing was universally unliked.  A compromise proposed by the state was to charge establishments that don’t follow separate but equal correctly but to keep the action in place.

Following all arguments, our judge found that separation was unconstitutional, thus overturning Plessy v. Ferguson.  Looking through the lens of that time, I also agree with this call.  A breakthrough was needed in this ongoing fight for equality, and African Americans got just that. 

Sources:  NOTES TAKEN IN CLASS 

EOTO Research: The Jazz Age

Bix Beiderbecke once said, “One thing I like about Jazz, kid, is I don’t know what’s going to happen next.”  This quote by Beiderbecke certainly helps demonstrate the point I made with my assigned EOTO on the Jazz Age.  What is that point exactly?  It’s that this age brought new experiences for all people in the U.S.  It was also a trailblazing age for multi-racial crowds and entertainers. Those involved, as Beiderbecke pointed out, truly didn’t know what would happen next.

Jazz music is said to have originated from African American communities in New Orleans.  The music style was very influenced by the roots of blues music and ragtime style.  In the 1920s, it became known as a major form of musical expression.

Jazz Music is characterized by call & response vocals with swing and blue notes and polyrhythms/improv. The music style became a staple as illegal speakeasies during the prohibition era.  With over 32,000 speakeasies within New York and Chicago, we can only imagine the amount of Jazz music played. 

Fitting with the “counterculture” of speakeasies, Jazz was perfect for the illicit environment.  Al Capone, one of the most notable crime bosses ever, was a huge fan and supporter of Jazz music and always hired struggling musicians to play.

In fact, Capone was known for hiring all races of musicians and would regularly give them a challenge.  If they could play a set he hadn’t heard, he would generously tip them with an extra $100.

As those of all different races collectively shared a love of this genre, the discrimination gap began to shrink some.  While there were still many race issues for some time after the Jazz Age, this was the start of acceptance for multi-racial crowds and hobbies.  Most consider this age a big stepping stone for our society.

Notables during the Jazz Age include Louis Armstrong, Jelly Roll Morton, Benny Goodman, and Tommy Dorsey.

Sources: 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_Age 

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/a-culture-of-change/ 

Class Video: A Look At Reconstruction

Going along with our historical ventures into the first amendment and how it’s affected people throughout history, our class was instructed to watch a video on reconstruction.  This extremely well put together documentary offered insight I was not aware of during the post-civil war era.  Listed below are a few takeaways that were most interesting to me. 

Following the start of the civil war, thousands of slaves ran away and found refuge in safe houses.  These slaves, alongside freed black men, would join in the fight for the union.  The impact of this was great as there were over 180,000 black men fighting for freedom.

Following the war, Abraham Lincoln said that some black men should have the ability to vote.  This was one of the many breaking points for his eventual assassin John Wilkes Booth.  Booth would finally go on to kill Lincoln in 1865 after many debunked attempts.

During this time following the Civil War, other interesting things were happening as well.  One of the most fascinating for me is the newspaper postings of former slaves attempting to find their families.  To know that some closure may have been reached after a life-long journey of wonders is very special.  However, it is also extremely sad to hear stories of those who didn’t receive any information on their loved ones after so much effort.

The Southern Democrat Andrew Johnson took over as President following Lincoln’s assassination.  Right out the gate, he proved to not withhold the same morals as Lincoln did.  Frederick Douglas quickly said that Johnson was “no friend of the black.”

Johnson continuously made promises to the south to keep the “black issue” under control while still accepting their freedom.  One of the ways he restored order within the states was by giving pardons to previous confederate leaders.  It is astonishing to me that because of these pardons, many men would lawfully return to political leadership within the USA.  The result of this would again cause government limitations on blacks.

One of the biggest ways Southern white men kept blacks as an inferior race was through black codes.  These laws recognized slavery was abolished but still kept as little change as possible.  In fact, the code required black adults to sign a contract requiring a year of work under a white employer.  If they didn’t sign, they’d be auctioned off to serve off their fine.  Yes, you read that correctly. SERVE!  How was this “slavery 2.0” allowed to happen?

Furthermore, many kids were legally taken from their parents without consent.  A white person would deem the black parent “unfit for parenting” and would take them in to “teach” skills like farming and nursing.  I don’t know about you, but that sounds like free labor to me.  Again, how could this happen?  How could parents have no say in a matter involving their own kids?

Along with the already racists acts put in place by the government, private racial hate groups began to form as well.  The biggest of these groups was the KKK, one we’re very familiar with today.

 

Eventually, Congress met again and had enough of these discriminatory acts.  Against the veto of President Johnson, Congress passed the Civil Rights Bill of 1866.  From there, changes began to be made as birth-right citizenship was put into place.  While this also caused many riots and further discrimination, it was a major stepping stone for improvement. 

The 14th amendment was next to be put into action and would redefine the rights of all free people.  Some Southern states refused to ratify the 14th amendment so were shut out from Congress until they did.  However, this amendment and the 15th amendment would help make a major shift for blacks in the USA.  While hate groups still remained in full force, African American’s finally had rights from the government. 

SOURCES: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TiXxQpBLMuk&feature=emb_title

EOTO Spotlight: Civil Unrest

In a recent class, students were asked to research a given topic and present that topic to the class for further understanding.  This ”EOTO” process included the following topics:  Andrew Johnson, John Wilkes Booth, Freedman’s Bureau, Election of 1876, Hiram R. Revels, and the Civil Rights Act of 1875.

During the EOTO for the presidency of Andrew Johnson, the student pointed out the number of things Johnson changed following President Lincoln’s assassination.  While Congress wasn’t meeting, Johnson used his power to allow former confederate leaders to hold a place in government.

Because of Johnson’s change, 60+ former confederate leaders were elected and the south used this to create separation.  Congress did impeach President Johnson but one vote saved the President from the removal of office.  All states did rejoin the union during his presidency. 

The student that presented John Wilkes Booth spoke on Booth’s many plans to cause President Lincoln harm.  In fact, Booth has a plan to kidnap Lincoln but failed to show up last minute.  During the night of Lincoln’s assassination, audience members in the Peterson House thought the deadly act was apart of the place.  Quickly, they realized it was not.

The Freedman’s Bureau was founded by President Lincoln in 1965 as a relief for southerners and former slaves in the South.  The Bureau quickly lost support, especially as former confederates joined congress following Lincolns death.  Before its eventual dismantle by congress, the Freedman’s Bureau built many houses and schools for the poor.

As presented to us, the Election of 1876 was one for the ages.  Running mates Rutherford Hayes and Samual Tilden were up against a very odd happening.  Tilden received the popular vote while Hayes received the electoral college.

Because of this issue, the compromise of 1877 was created to lay some rules for the election decision.  The first was that Hayes would become President.  The second was that democrats would respect African American’s.  The third was that federal troops were removed from the South.  The final was Hayes had to appoint a southern cabinet. 

The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was passed to punish African American’s in the South.  The act was rarely enforced.  It was deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. 

The final presented person was Hiram R. Revels.  Revels was the first African American elected to congress.  He was a trailblazer for the black community and often fought for civil rights and the rights of minorities.

Overall, this EOTO experience was very educational.  I was able to learn a lot more about the topics presented in a faster time.  I’m looking forward to our next round of presentations.

SOURCE: NOTES TAKEN IN CLASS BASED ON POWERPOINT PRESENTATIONS

Mock Trial: State V. Mann

During class, a mock trial was conducted based on the historic case State V. Mann.  Here, I’ll write a brief overview of the trial and its conclusion.  Going into this trial, my heart wanted to side with the state, however, law at that time would force a difference in opinion.

First, let’s talk about what this case was about.  In Chowan County, North Carolina, a slave by the name of Lydia was rented to John Mann.  One day, Lydia attempted an escape from Mann after receiving lashes as a punishment.  Mann drew his gun and shot Lydia, wounding her but not killing her.

The matter was taken to court where Mann received a fine of $10.  Believing he did no wrong, Mann took this case to the Supreme Court of North Carolina.  The court found Mann not guilty of battery and had the State repay Mann his money. 

In our class, many arguments for the State deemed it unfair Mann should getaway for the damage of another person’s property.  While Mann was the renter, the slave belonged to Elizabeth Jones and he had now damaged her property. 

Other arguments for the State included the fact Lydia, while technically owned property, was still human and deserved justice.  One presenter even brought up the age-old saying “An eye for an eye.” 

Religious reasoning was also brought into play by the State.  Unanimously, arguers felt some sort of kindness, and reasoning was expected, as instructed by God.  They strongly felt this type of deliberate action was harsh and unjust. 

On the other side of the argument, the legal defense for Mann believed property has no right under God and shouldn’t be treated as so.  As a renter of Lydia for one year’s time, Mann felt he possessed the power to treat her as he saw fit.

Mann’s defense also cited a law in North Carolina’s sister-state Virginia where slaves could lawfully be shot and killed as property.  According to presenters for Mann, a slave has the duty to obey and a slave master has the duty to discipline if not followed.  The disciplinary action used is solely up to the master’s discretion.

Following the conclusion of both arguments, the judge ruled in favor of John Mann and just like the real case, had the State reimburse the monetary fine. 

For me, this ruling makes sense for the time it was set.  While, as mentioned, my heart wants to side with the State’s initial ruling, the bottom line is law during this time had no way of achieving any justice for Lydia as “property.” 

Sources: 

https://www.lexisnexis.com/community/casebrief/p/casebrief-state-v-mann

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina_v._Mann

Notes From Class

EOTO Research: The Underground Railroad

The Underground Railroad will always be a vital part of American history. The railroad was a system run by abolitionists for the freeing of runaway slaves.  Spanning from the late 18th century until the American Civil War, the system saved thousands of slaves and forced change in the U.S.

Quakers are believed to be some of the first organized groups to run a system like the Underground Railroad.  In fact, George Washington once said a quaker tried to “liberate” one of his slaves in 1786.

In the 1800s, a Quaker abolitionist Isaac T. Hopper designed a network in Philadelphia that helped runaways.  During this same time, North Carolina Quakers were laying the groundwork for routes and shelters, according to History.com.

The actual term Underground Railroad first appeared in a Washington newspaper in 1839 after a slave named Jim was tortured until he confessed his plans of running away using the railroad.  By the mid-1840s, the term became very well known around the country.

Staying with the railroad theme, those who transported runaway slaves to their destinations were called conductors.  Furthermore, the locations that the slaves reached were labeled as “stations,” “depots,” and “safe houses.”  These places were typically schoolhouses, private homes, or churches run by people called “stationmasters”.

Many notorious routes stretched through Pennsylvania and into New England, heading toward Canada.  Others would go through Ohio on the way to Iowa and Indiana.

Notable abolitionists who were apart of the Underground Railroad include John Brown, William Still, Thomas Garrett, Levi Coffin, and the very famous Harriet Tubman. 

It is safe to say that without the Underground Railroad, our advances and eventual end of slavery may not have happened as quickly.  With things like the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793, the fight only became more apparent and voices became much louder for the end of such a horrifying act.  The fight was on and it wouldn’t end until change was made.